Natural Selection

Natural Selection is a process by which become either more or less common in a function of differential reproduction of their bearers. The mutations do occur to produce brand new alleles that improve organisms chances of survival in a particular environment. Natural selection never affects the genotypes since it is already fixed the genotype combination can never be altered.

Should cloning research be regulated?

My opinion: I think cloning research shouldn't be regulated because cloning can be harmful to the world.

different types of mutations

NONSENSE MUTATIONS: a nonsense mutation, the new nucleotide changes a codon that specified an amino acid to one of the stop codons (TAA, TAG, or TGA). Therefore, translation of the messenger RNA transcribed from this mutant gene will stop prematurely. The earlier in the gene that this occurs, the more truncated the protein product and the more likely that it will be unable to function.

INSERTION: occur when extra DNA is added into an existing gene


FRAMESHIFT:

mutations result from either addition or deletion of one or two nucleotide bases. When this occurs the reading frame is changed so that all the codons read after the mutation are incorrect, even though the bases themselves may be still present.

POINT MUTATIONS: are small changes often in a single nucleotide base.

TRANSLOCATIONS: are the transfer of a piece of one chromosome to a nonhomolougus chromosomes. Translocations are often reciprocal; that is, the two nonhomologues swap 

• the break may occur within a gene destroying its function
• translocated genes may come under the influence of different promoters and enhancers so that their expression is altered. 
• the breakpoint may occur within a gene creating a hybrid gene. This may be transcribed and translated into a protein with an N-terminal of one normal cell protein coupled to the C-terminal of another. The Philadelphia chromosome found so often in the leukemic cells of patients with  (CML) is the result of a translocation which produces a compound gene (bcr-abl).

SENSE MUTATIONS:A mutation that changes a termination  codon into one that codes for an amino acid. Such a mutation results in an elongated protein. 

DELETION MUTATIONS: result in missing DNA are called deletions. These can be small, such as the removal of just one "word," or longer deletions that affect a large number of genes on the chromosome. Deletions can also cause frameshift mutations. In this example, the deletion eliminated the word cat.

transcription, translation

transcription is the synthesis of RNA from a DNA template the concept of transcription wheather prokaryoticor eukaryotic has 3 main events: initian, elongation, termination

translation is the process where m RNA molecules are translated into proteins at the ribosomes

name that Gene

Gene 1:Official Symbol

HTTprovided by HGNC

Official Full Name

huntingtinprovided by HGNC

Primary source

HGNC:4851

See related

Ensembl:ENSG00000197386; HPRD:00883; MIM:613004; Vega:OTTHUMG00000159916

Gene type

protein coding

RefSeq status

REVIEWED

Organism

Homo sapiens

Lineage

Eukaryota; Metazoa; Chordata; Craniata; Vertebrata; Euteleostomi; Mammalia; Eutheria; Euarchontoglires; Primates; Haplorrhini; Catarrhini; Hominidae; Homo

Also known as

HD; IT15

Summary

Huntingtin is a disease gene linked to Huntington's disease, a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by loss of striatal neurons. This is thought to be caused by an expanded, unstable trinucleotide repeat in the huntingtin gene, which translates as a polyglutamine repeat in the protein product. A fairly broad range in the number of trinucleotide repeats has been identified in normal controls, and repeat numbers in excess of 40 have been described as pathological. The huntingtin locus is large, spanning 180 kb and consisting of 67 exons. The huntingtin gene is widely expressed and is required for normal development. It is expressed as 2 alternatively polyadenylated forms displaying different relative abundance in various fetal and adult tissues. The larger transcript is approximately 13.7 kb and is expressed predominantly in adult and fetal brain whereas the smaller transcript of approximately 10.3 kb is more widely expressed. The genetic defect leading to Huntington's disease may not necessarily eliminate transcription, but may confer a new property on the mRNA or alter the function of the protein. One candidate is the huntingtin-associated protein-1, highly expressed in brain, which has increased affinity for huntingtin protein with expanded polyglutamine repeats. This gene contains an upstream open reading frame in the 5' UTR that inhibits expression of the huntingtin gene product through translational repression. [provided by RefSeq, Jul 2008]

Gene 2:

Official Symbol

ELNprovided by HGNC

Official Full Name

elastinprovided by HGNC

Primary source

HGNC:3327

See related

Ensembl:ENSG00000049540; HPRD:00556; MIM:130160; Vega:OTTHUMG00000150229

Gene type

protein coding

RefSeq status

REVIEWED

Organism

Homo sapiens

Lineage

Eukaryota; Metazoa; Chordata; Craniata; Vertebrata; Euteleostomi; Mammalia; Eutheria; Euarchontoglires; Primates; Haplorrhini; Catarrhini; Hominidae; Homo

Also known as

WS; WBS; SVAS

Summary

This gene encodes a protein that is one of the two components of elastic fibers. The encoded protein is rich in hydrophobic amino acids such as glycine and proline, which form mobile hydrophobic regions bounded by crosslinks between lysine residues. Deletions and mutations in this gene are associated with supravalvular aortic stenosis (SVAS) and autosomal dominant cutis laxa. Multiple transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been found for this gene. [provided by RefSeq, Jul 2008]

Gene 3:

Official Symbol

PSEN2provided by HGNC

Official Full Name

presenilin 2 (Alzheimer disease 4)provided by HGNC

Primary source

HGNC:9509

See related

Ensembl:ENSG00000143801; HPRD:02860; MIM:600759; Vega:OTTHUMG00000037563

Gene type

protein coding

RefSeq status

REVIEWED

Organism

Homo sapiens

Lineage

Eukaryota; Metazoa; Chordata; Craniata; Vertebrata; Euteleostomi; Mammalia; Eutheria; Euarchontoglires; Primates; Haplorrhini; Catarrhini; Hominidae; Homo

Also known as

AD4; PS2; AD3L; STM2; CMD1V

Summary

Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients with an inherited form of the disease carry mutations in the presenilin proteins (PSEN1 or PSEN2) or the amyloid precursor protein (APP). These disease-linked mutations result in increased production of the longer form of amyloid-beta (main component of amyloid deposits found in AD brains). Presenilins are postulated to regulate APP processing through their effects on gamma-secretase, an enzyme that cleaves APP. Also, it is thought that the presenilins are involved in the cleavage of the Notch receptor such that, they either directly regulate gamma-secretase activity, or themselves act are protease enzymes. Two alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding different isoforms of PSEN2 have been identified. [provided by RefSeq, Jul 2008]

Gene 4:

GDS3489 record | GPL7430 hHR029307 [Homo sapiens]

4 samples Profile Neighbors, Links

Annotation:	Homo sapiens chromosome 7 genomic contig, alternate assembly (based on CRA_TCAGchr7v2)
Reporter:	NT_079596.1 392781 (orf)
Experiment:	CD133 depletion effect on metastatic melanoma cell line, Expression profiling by array, transformed count

FERMINTATION

Growing up in New York City, experiencing my Jewish heritage largely through food, I developed a taste for sour pickles. Most of what is sold in stores as pickles, and even what home canners pickle, are preserved in vinegar. My idea of a pickle is one fermented in a brine solution. Pickle-making requires close attention. My first attempt at brine pickle-making resulted in soft, unappealing pickles that fell apart, because I abandoned it for a few days, and perhaps because the brine was not salty enough, and because of the heat of the Tennessee summer. And and and. “Our perfection lies in our imperfection.” There are, inevitably, fermentation failures. We are dealing with fickle life forces, after all.

I persevered though, compelled by a craving deep inside of me for the yummy garlic-dill sour pickles of Guss’s pickle stall on the Lower East Side of Manhattan and Zabar’s on the Upper West Side and Bubbie’s in upscale health food stores elsewhere. As it turns out, brine pickles are easy. You just need to give them regular attention in the summer heat, when cucumbers are most abundant.

One quality prized in a good pickle is crunchiness. Fresh tannin-rich grape leaves placed in the crock are effective at keeping pickles crunchy. I recommend using them if you have access to grape vines. I’ve also seen references in various brine pickle recipes to using sour cherry leaves, oak leaves, and horseradish leaves to keep pickles crunchy.

The biggest variables in pickle-making are brine strength, temperature, and cucumber size. I prefer pickles from small and medium cucumbers; pickles from really big ones can be tough and sometimes hollow in the middle. I don’t worry about uniformity of size; I just eat the smaller ones first, figuring the larger ones will take longer to ferment.

The strength of brine varies widely in different traditions and recipe books. Brine strength is most often expressed as weight of salt as a percentage of weight of solution, though sometimes as weight of salt as a percentage of volume of solution. Since in most home kitchens we are generally dealing with volumes rather than weights, the following guideline can help readers gauge brine strength: Added to 1 quart of water, each tablespoon of sea salt (weighing about .6 ounce) adds 1.8% brine. So 2 tablespoons of salt in 1 quart of water yields a 3.6% brine, 3 tablespoons yields 5.4%, and so on. In the metric system, each 15 milliliters of salt (weighing 17 grams) added to 1 liter of water yields 1.8% brine.

Some old-time recipes call for brines with enough salt to float an egg. This translates to about a 10% salt solution. This is enough salt to preserve pickles for quite some time, but they are too salty to consume without a long desalinating soak in fresh water first. Low-salt pickles, around 3.5% brine, are “half-sours” in delicatessen lingo. This recipe is for sour, fairly salty pickles, using around 5.4% brine. Experiment with brine strength. A general rule of thumb to consider in salting your ferments: more salt to slow microorganism action in summer heat; less salt in winter when microbial action slows.

Timeframe: 1-4 weeks

Special Equipment:

• Ceramic crock or food-grade plastic bucket
• Plate that fits inside crock or bucket
• 1-gallon/4-liter jug filled with water, or other weight
• Cloth cover

Ingredients (for 4 liters):

• /1.5 to 2 kilograms unwaxed
• cucumbers (small to medium size)
• 3⁄8 cup (6 tablespoons)/90 milliliters sea salt
• 3 to 4 heads fresh flowering dill, or 3 to 4
• tablespoons/45 to 60 milliliters of any form of
• dill (fresh or dried leaf or seeds)
• 2 to 3 heads garlic, peeled
• 1 handful fresh grape, cherry, oak, and/or
• horseradish leaves (if available)
• 1 pinch black peppercorns

Process:

1. Rinse cucumbers, taking care to not bruise them, and making sure their blossoms are removed. Scrape off any remains at the blossom end. If you’re using cucumbers that aren’t fresh off the vine that day, soak them for a couple of hours in very cold water to freshen them.
2. Dissolve sea salt in ½gallon (2 liters) of water to create brine solution. Stir until salt is thoroughly dissolved.
3. 3. Clean the crock, then place at the bottom of it dill, garlic, fresh grape leaves, and a pinch of black peppercorns.
4. Place cucumbers in the crock.
5. Pour brine over the cucumbers,place the (clean) plate over them, then weigh it down with a jug filled with water or a boiled rock. If the brine doesn’t cover the weighed-down plate, add more brine mixed at the same ratio of just under 1 tablespoon of salt to each cup of water.
6. Cover the crock with a cloth to keep out dust and flies and store it in a cool place.
7. Check the crock every day. Skim any mold from the surface, but don’t worry if you can’t get it all. If there’s mold, be sure to rinse the plate and weight. Taste the pickles after a few days.
8. Enjoy the pickles as they continue to ferment. Continue to check the crock every day.
9. Eventually, after one to four weeks (depending on the temperature), the pickles will be fully sour. Continue to enjoy them, moving them to the fridge to slow down

osmosis jones

The movie Osmosis Jones relates to your immune system because the immune system cells and molecules  maintain or destroy the organisms tissue. In the other hand jones is like your immune system he fights off diseases with drix and help maintain franks body. The immune system also helps fight other diseases around the body, jones is similar to this because he also fights in different parts of the body, for example when jones i s trying to fight the crime with drix in the pimple. The city of frank is like the body of a human so osmosis jones was fighting diseases on the body. The immune system helps fight off diseases immediately similar to osmosis jones he tries to stop crimes in franks body immediately so he wont get in trouble with the mayor. The differences were how the immune system is not really people and drix is not a superhero inside the body......Andy Nong helped me